1993. 2001. Perhaps political works simply have a political message. This thou perceivest, which makes thy love more strong, To love that well which thou must leave ere long. (However, it is not so clear that in military circles and in the context of war that the conception of virtue has changed all that much, though what will rationalize going to war certainly has. Sometimes taste means subjective preference, as when we say: Its a matter of taste, or In matters of taste, to each his own. There is certainly such a thing as subjective preference, but this is not what taste is supposed to be in the present proposal. 1983. Notice the problem applies both to those who claim that we literally pity Anna and those who deny this as long as they characterize what we feel as a kind of emotion, or indeed as any kind of mental state that has cognitive content. The American Society for Aesthetics Newsletter, 31(2), Summer 2011: 1-4. Artistic movements such as romanticism, impressionism, and art-for-arts-sake challenge ideals associated with the exclusive concern with representation and direct attention to other aspects of art, such as the expression of the artist and the experience of the audience. Philosophical Resistance to Mass Art: The Majority Tradition 2. The original proposal combines two different claims. 1979. 2006. Beardsley, Monroe. The aesthetic is something that can pervade our experience, because virtually every compartment of life contains objects that have aesthetic value. So its not clear how we have gotten beyond the verbal issue. . First, as is probably obvious, my approach and viewing of the house from the nature trail was peculiar. . It is clean and comfortable. The work itself may con- Interaction: Ethical, Aesthetic, and Artistic Value 249 tent itself in raising questions or setting out scenarios. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. In this section, we will look at some of the most serious criticisms of actual intentionalism per se. The early debate often had an all or nothing character with anti-intentionalists arguing that reference to artists intentions is simply irrelevant to the interpretation of their works and intentionalists arguing the meaning of works is identical to such intentions. The implicit endorsement, I have claimed, ought not to interfere with this engagement, but I have not claimed it positively enhances it or that it ought to. Notes 1. One might intend it for regard for its form, expressiveness, or verisimilitude. Similarly, being aesthetically engaged with an objectan artwork or a natural environmentis being in a state of mind valued (valuable) for itself. We should note in passing that pictures can represent in ways that go beyond their depictive content and that is more language-like. But this doesnt mean that their experiences are the same in every respect. Irony, Metaphor, and the Problem of Intention. In Intention and Interpretation, ed. When we compare vernacular buildings with unquestioned artworks of high quality, distinctions in the degree of aesthetic or other kinds of artistic value may become plainly visible. As we have seen in connection with the cognitive insight arguments, works that do not endorse a flawed moral outlook can give us similar insights. One of the first defenses of hypothetical intentionalism. Is there an account of the relation of aesthetic properties to evaluations which can apply to these various cases? Lamarque might confine the artistic (literary) value of tragedy to the value of its literary dimension. However, whether there is an art form of architecture depends not only on the existence of architectural artworks but on the existence of practices or institutional arrangements for presenting, classifying, explaining (interpreting), and evaluating architectural works for artistically minded audiences. Most think that only elegance and gracefulness are aesthetic properties. Not the Girl She Was at All: Women in The Dead. In The Dead, ed. To avoid confusion, we will use aesthetics to refer to only the study of aesthetic value and related notions such as aesthetic experience, 4 Chapter One aesthetic properties, and aesthetic judgments. This type of argument is vulnerable to criticism, the target of which is the third premise of the argument: that we have an aesthetic defect every time we have a prescribed response that is or ought to be blocked by a feature of the work. At the same time, the conception does provide a way of 289 290 Conclusion selecting aesthetic properties if certain further conditions regarding the objectivity of aesthetic judgments are met. . If so, it could be argued that either not all depiction is characterized by seeing-in or seeing-in is not rightly understood to have the property of nonexistence. A different type of example would be antiaesthetic art (sometimes simply called anti-art). It is not entirely clear whether Wollheim would accept the claim that seeingin possesses the nonexistence property. A grain of truth contained in this argument is that it is false that conceptions of art are uniform across individuals. For example, as Nol Carroll has noted (2001b, 186), although Jules Vernes novel Mysterious Island intentionally and explicitly opposes the institution of slavery, it also, no doubt unintentionally but no less actually, expresses a residual racism in representing the former slave Neb as a superstitious, docile, naive, childlike individual with a curious affinity with a domesticated monkey. Syntactic density means that between any two symbols there is potentially a third. It recognizes that all Sally believes is that it is true in the fiction that someone (Anna) suffers, but when Sally imagines this fictional suffering vividly, this may be sufficient to feel an emotion of pity. Clearly, this latter assertion would not be justified, and nobody has ever claimed that it is. In the eighteenth century, aesthetic judgments were called judgments of taste, and we seem to be torn about what constitutes taste. As it turns out, the identity thesis never has had many defenders. For example, when there is disagreement whether a musical work is powerful the issue will probably not be settled by pointing to its piercing poignancy or even its subtle expression of deep sadness, because these are all evaluative claims that are likely to be disputed. When I enjoy the sight of a beautiful bird, an important part of my appreciation of it is as a living thing of a certain kind. One source of this version is religion: nature is Gods, or the gods, artwork, which, given traditional theological beliefs would require it being seen as not only an artwork, but as the best artwork. Look at a picture of a woman such as A Woman Weighing Gold. The overall artistic value of a work is the composite of all the types of value, including aesthetic value, which it attains. Nonexistence does not imply that I can only see-in depictions of fictional beings. (See Dickie 1974 for an elaboration of this point.) 1914. The other is that one approach to the philosophy of artcontextualismworks better than its rivals in resolving issue after issue. But this understanding makes ways of appearing responsedependent. It is not just that I could buy another rod of the same type (model)that would just involve getting another token of the same rod. Certainly novels, stories, and dramas are preeminent example of fictions. However, because of the ambitious claims that it makes, the environmental model also does something else that is of great interest: it raises a number of important questions. The nonessentialist claims that artistic value consists in those valuable properties, which artists commonly try to imbue in their works, and which critics and appreciators commonly look for or seek out in works. He claims that this is what distinguishes aesthetic absorption from nonaesthetic attention. . Finally, its lines may be delicate because of their thin smooth curves, and its poignancy may derive from its subtle expression of deep sadness. When I leave myself out of the fictional world I am imagining, there is no place for me to imagine the proposition that the monster threatens me. 5. The invention of photography challenges the representational ideal in painting, at least if that is regarded as the increasingly accurate, lifelike depiction of what we see. Consider taste in food (a matter of agreeableness). However, an ideal audience would not attribute to Conan Doyle the intention to fictionally assert an impossibility, so HI would falsely deny that it is part of the meaning of the story. Finally, since taking satisfaction in something is itself a valuable state of affairs, when an experience is valued in this way, it is valuable, indeed, valuable for itself. Indeed, as a general rule, activities and experiences that have value from the evolutionary point of view are valued by individuals and are valuable to those individuals not for that reason but for some other. We will follow this practice in our discussion of expression here. Against taking it as a sufficient condition for being art, various examples have been offered where the requisite intention is purportedly present, but the item in question is arguably not an artwork. In each of these works, we find a system of values not so much endorsed as taken for granted. They really enjoy the environment that the house and surroundings provide; part of their enjoyment is aesthetic. Finally, one can ask why soliciting merely imaginative sympathy for the bad is a moral defect. However, if this is right, we are no further along in justifying a claim to subjective universality. We may read it again to see if we really got it right the first time, and to see if, with a possibly different understanding of the poem, we also find different thoughts in it. We can try to ascertain these aims, indirectly, by thinking about the consideration that would be relevant to the aesthetic evaluation of buildings on the assumption that architects are concerned with these considerations when 282 Chapter Thirteen they aim to create artworks. With trompe loeil what is needed is a (re)positioning of the spectator. If this is so, a likely further inference is that such a single salient resembling feature of some other kind, or combination of such features, will not be found either. However, it really is not so different. So intentional properties of a painting might include its representing a lion, its symbolizing injustice, its expressing indignation. This view proposes that apprehension as if something is in an emotional state is an inference that an imagined producer of an object (e.g., an imagined utterer of a poem) is in that state. The intermediate view can be extended to all sorts of art forms beyond literature. Berys Gaut offered valuable comments on chapters 3 and 4. If one wants to experience from the inside what it is like to be a really bad person, there is no better resource than Richard III. The value of insulation, a door stop, or an investment can all be completely grasped without even encountering the object that possesses these properties. The humor in A Sentimental Journey is of artistic merit and helps to make it a good novel. The aim of this book is to give an overview of the current state of the debate on numerous issues within these two broad main topics. Second, I propose that the basic case or the most standard way of hearing emotion should be built on the perception of an emotional qualityan emotion characteristic in appearance. Kristellar, Paul Oskar. Yet redness is often put forward as a response-dependent property. One person may react to a deeply sad musical passage with sadness, another with joy at its beauty, and a third with no feeling at all. Goldmans version attempts to meet this objection by appealing to a special object of attention (absorption): a virtual world distinct from the real one. 2 Vols., trans. The problem with this view is that, if the type of resemblance used in classification is left unspecified, then nothing is excluded from the classification, while if the resemblance is narrowed to specific respects, we have the material for a definition of art. On the issue of ascribing attitudes to a literary work, it has become fairly common to speak of the implied author as the object of attitude ascription. Oxford: Blackwell, 33241. A possible way to defend the WECIA is to argue that the morally flawed works dont merely ask us to imagine being bad in some way but also to ask us to sympathize with its morally flawed or outright immoral characters, and this gives a kind of edge to our imaginative engagement with the work that we (or some of us) enjoy, making the work aesthetically better. As I ascended a small rise on a wooded trail (a trail that seemed to hold out the prospect of more woods), I initially saw tall white slender columns before the entire rear of a house came into full view. . What the expressivist would like to say is that we are expressing this too. 101 ists, Clive Bell (1914) and Roger Fry (1956). Instead, our interpretive strategy might either appeal to a virtual intentionone that is hypothesized or postulated by an interpreter or, alternatively, audience intentions. However, I want to leave the hypothetical intentionalist version on the table, because the point to emphasize is that an account of expression can be assimilated to a more general account of work meaning, whichever account proves to be the best. The Paradox of Caring: Fiction and the Philosophy of Mind. In Emotion and the Arts, eds. Can you give additional examples? So what may be conflated are the genuine strong feelings which are not fictional and its being fictional that I feel pity for the character. Apprehension as if: An experience as if one is confronting something in an emotional state without literally doing so. The work belongs to the genre called Bildungsroman, which literally means a novel about the moral education and moral development of a central character and typically traces the life of a character from childhood or youth well into maturity or beyond. It might seem that we can dismiss these in virtue of departing from the work Chaplin intended. Whichever answer one gives there is an object of appreciation which is not a work but something else related to the work, but different from it or a performance of it. 2001. They put words together to make lines, and lines together to make a poem. Consider an exuberant piece of music like Billy Strayhorns Take the A Train. What does its exuberance consist of? Though simple, this is not a very clear way of putting the matter. Is there just one Gold Rush, having several different versions or many similar but numerically different films bearing the same title? Art and, Introduction 1. Such properties can be perceived in the work and their presence in a work does not require any specific process of creation. When evaluating the distortion objection, we discovered an intuition that some such minimum is required. If art broadens ones conceptual repertoire in ways that can lead to new ways of thinking or perceiving and sometimes to new knowledge, engaging with works can also make us better thinkers and perceivers in other ways. The first claim obviously depends on the second, which is very controversial. This does not mean that we have to reject the make-believe view outright. We dont imagine ourselves hearing about Anna taking a lover; we simply imagine Anna taking a lover or someone telling of Anna taking a lover, but not telling us. The distinction between core meanings and peripheral ones is rejected. Even if we grant all of the above, many styles of depiction dont capture this sort of resemblance. This conception is empirical or a posteriori in the sense that, according to it, no amount of reflecting on the concept of art will identify which values Artistic Value 223 are artistic, whether they are intrinsic or instrumental, singular or plural, unique to art or not, always shared across art forms or not. He is the protagonist, Gabriel, and the woman is his wife, Gretta. These include beliefs, intentions, desires, attitudes, emotions, and moods. It heightens ones awareness of the place of art among aesthetically good things; it offers refreshment when one begins to feel one has seen too many paintings; in general, in addition to offering an experience of individual artworks, it helps to deepen ones experience of art in relation to other things. Sound and Feeling. Critical Inquiry 10:61443. Identifying Art. In Institutions of Art: Reconsiderations of George Dickies Philosophy, ed. Kieran (2003b) is his most detailed statement of it. . CHAPTER ELEVEN Artistic Value Essentialism/Antiessentialism Willem de Koonings abstract work Untitled III (1977) consists of numerous irregular, patches of paint: whites, blood reds, dark browns, bilious greens, and flesh tones seemingly smeared on the canvass, one patch often overlaying and mixing with another. But if this turns out to be true, it plausibly undermines an unqualified ascription of general aesthetic merit.11 The proposal for the specific-value properties is far more problematic. If there is reference to nonexistents, it can occur both inside and outside fiction. This is because such vividness depends on other perceptual color properties such as saturation and brightness. To restore honor, the Greeks too must be willing to undergo no end of sacrifices: its best warriors killed and Iphigenia, the daughter of Agamemnon, leader of the military expedition, sacrificed so the winds will blow. As we read more about Jim and his family, this may change but there is some plausibility that more than belief about what is fictionally 176 Chapter Eight true in the story is required, namely, that one imagines (the more vividly the better) the suffering. 1979. Note 1. On the table, near the fireplace is a manuscript titled A Chronicle. 1998. The experience is not free of cognition, because typically one experiences the array of colors in the evening sky caused by the setting sun as a sunset. Because Dickies definitions simply gesture toward the art world without marking it off from similar systems, it is incomplete because of its lack of informativeness. A last objection is that the account of musical expressiveness in terms of HI (or moderate actual intentionalism) tells us what is expressiveness without telling us what hearing emotion in music is. Goldman (1995) argues for a conception of artistic value that in many ways is similar to Budds, though it is, at best, a less pure version of essentialism. This leaves the boundaries of such appreciation uncertain at least until an Environmental Aesthetics: Natural Beauty 33 alternative conception, not limited to engagement with aesthetic properties, is proposed. The process is not very different when we are interpreting artworks. But the wheel and the lump have different essential properties. Newcombe, Anthony. For example, among the properties of an object that may cause my experience are its microstructural properties. What an artist tries to do is to create a product with a distinctive kind of value. 6. Some instances of performance art appear to be based on the premise that political ideas can be conveyed more effectively without the veneer of aesthetic interest. 1980. There are advocates of both approaches. It sometimes claims that artworks all belong to one type of entity: aesthetic objects. On another occasion, we may simply enjoy the story it tells, and so on. If it is fairly easy to see why one might want a definition of art, it is not so obvious what makes the ontological issue compelling. It is hard to state this condition with precision. Suppose there was a pill that induced a fine aesthetic experience. The Wheel of Virtue: Art, Literature, and Moral Knowledge. Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 60:326. Essentialism about value could not be established via a definition of art. Regarding the first objection, the subjectivist can resist it or concede it without much effect on the overall subjectivist view. What Is Art? However, Mozarts mature music, such as his clarinet concerto, is an exemplar of the classical style. When you listen to instrumental music, can you hear a persona whose emotion the music expresses? Howell, Robert. And if that is right, there is no such thing as a neutral perceptual cognition of properties like being graceful, witty, poignant, vivid, gaudy, or dull. Lamarque, Peter. Notice that every three-dimensional object has formal properties so characterized, and those that have significant form are a subclass of those that have form. Similarly, there are forms of writing, including history, biography, the essay, philosophical writing, and nature writing about which the same could be said. 1996. My discussion attempts to identify qualities that all these lines of thought share in common. Our partners will collect data and use cookies for ad personalization and measurement. Intermediate view: A view about when the meaning of an utterance is fixed by a realized intention. An example that Kant offers is pleasure found in the green color of a meadow. With regard to the stripping away of traditional traits, the same is true. CHAPTER EIGHT Representation Fiction Interpretation is a common means to the understanding and appreciation of artworks because such works contain elements that are meaningful or significant, yet not always transparent in their meanings or significance. Thus, either the conception contains an equivocation or it is open to counterexample. 4. we are attempting to discover certain truths about it, which are fixed when the work is created, in virtue features of the context in which the work is created, which features are essential to the very existence of the work. The Founding of Aesthetics in the German Enlightenment. It cropped up in our discussion of the definition of art when we claimed that art needs to be defined disjunctively in terms of two or more sufficient conditions, none of which are necessary. G. Dickie, R. Sclafani, and R. Roblin, 2nd ed. That is not quite right. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press. Finally, if we somehow became convinced that each item that comes into existence is intended to do so by the intelligent creator(s), the content of these intentions are hidden from us. To say that it is such as to be beneficial is a cumbersome way of saying that it has the capacity to benefit. Carroll (2001a) has offered three replies to the above argument. Architectural artworks are designed under an idea that a building or a certain type of building should aim to realize. Neither claim is as obvious as it might seem at first sight. Could that property exist before the existence of actors and film? If we can have two, we can have more, supplied by the models discussed in the earlier sections. A defense of fictional reference. The definition of literature will be briefly explored. Let us now turn to the problem of specificity. 1957. One could add that it is just as important to understand the bad as the good, and one has to experience the bad to understand the bad. Let us now turn to this new approach. All the evidence suggests that the latter approach has led to a standoff, but whether appeal to artistic practice will lead to progress remains to be seen. The interior of the buildings do two things wonderfully well. However, its more in keeping with the idea that this is a version of subjectivism that, when I say, thats elegant, my judgment makes reference to myself, not an ideal observer. A novel might put us in mind of a real person or people who suffer a fate like Annas, and we might unproblematically pity them (Charlton 1984). This much can be happily admitted by proponents of the account under examination because they do require more than any old resemblance; they require a perceptible one. Works and Worlds of Art. So the role of sympathetic arousal in understanding others is not as pervasive as Ridley suggests, and the alternatives of robotic belief formation and sympathetic understanding not as exhaustive. Does embracing the constructivist paradigm give us reason to believe that artworks and the like lack essences? Deeper than Reason: Emotion and Its Role in Literature, Music, and Art. First, resemblance consists in two things sharing some properties, and, since any given thing shares some properties with everything else that exists, everything resembles everything in some way or other. The closest Wollheim comes to endorsing the view that nonexistence is a property of seeing-in is this passage: Seeing-in de- Representation: Depiction 199 rives from a special perceptual capacity, which presupposes, but is something over and above, straightforward perception. The coherence of Dodds view depends on whether something can be a symbol tied to a certain community before the symbol is used by the community or even before the existence of the community itself. What Im now calling ethicists deny this ever happens. Searle, John. Call it the artwork model. In none of these plays are these vices endorsed, but they are represented as vividly as they have ever beenand that is whats needed. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. 1997. Stecker, Robert. Prototypes are derived from exemplars: items that are typical examples of a kind, perhaps ones that might be pointed out in learning situations, where the concept is acquired. To stick to matters that are completely nontendentious, when we interpret conversational utterances, instructions, official statements, policies, and expressions of thought, such as those found in philosophical works, we routinely and uncontroversially inquire into the intended meaning of these items. 19511952. If you were to look at an area full of purple loosestrife in bloom without this knowledge of its effect on the environment, you would find it very beautiful. Since Danto is not explicit about endorsing a particular theory of artistic value, we should be cautious about attributing a purely cognitive view to him. For me, at least, it is easier to see this by shifting to another art form: lyric poetry. Intention and Interpretation. Langer, S. 1953. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 7696. Alternatively, it may in fact be that one can simply infer the presence of an aesthetic property without having such an experience, even if aesthetic properties are response dependent, by inferring that they would produce the appropriate response in a receptive individual. We know that much art is concerned with such things as representation, expression, and the discovery of forms suitable to the artistic project being carried out. A work is an expression of sadness only if it in some way conveys, communicates, makes manifest (an actual or fictional) someones sadness, and a work can be sad without doing this. You just cant literally intend to say something with my utterance. Morality and Literature: The Necessary Conflict. British Journal of Aesthetics 24:14955. Darren Hudson Hick's Introduction to Aesthetics and the Philosophy of Art offers a fresh, engaging take on both central and historically neglected topics in aesthetics.Hick presents complex debates in an accessible way and brings thinkers from different traditions and historical moments seamlessly into conversation. Hence, at best, selfless absorption gives us a conception of a type of aesthetic experience, even when we just confine our attention to art. 1996. Best source of Dickies early institutional definition of art. But the same conclusion can be drawn. . Musical Works and Performances. As argued above, aesthetic value is plausibly understood in terms of a kind of valuable experience and this is captured in the proposals treatment of general-value properties. We have already mentioned that one way people answer these questions is through an aesthetic conception of art. You sit there entranced until there is nothing, not even a visible ridgeline. A work may not endorse the views of any character, including a seemingly authoritative narrator.1 However, sometimes a narrator or even a character embedded in a work will convey an attitude, point of view, or message the artists intends the work to express. Figures Do you think it is easy to decide in which category a property belongs? This new conception comes considerably closer to extensional adequacy. However, we did not endorse this way of relating aesthetic experience and aesthetic properties because we were not convinced that the latter really are ways of appearing. Scruton, Roger. One hopes that chapter 11 discredited this view. In the cases we are looking at, there are two distinct but noteworthy reactions among observers with the newly acquired knowledge of the effects of purple loosestrife and the causes of sunsets. Argues that architecture is not an art form. In The Aesthetic Understanding. Were Morris Weitz ( 1956 ) is story period in question is expressed terms! On there being a token of that song end only when the acquire As reports of different ways of developing the objection in Platos day would be seen as directed toward the in! Constantly do when we use in understanding and appreciating the Picasso a framework for the aspect! Properties capable of explaining how the different emotions fiction evokes are faced with a character reject the deployment of targeted. The blameless differences in aesthetic concepts: essays after Sibley, eds with Defined as the study of value what publicity requires is inaccurate. can hardly the. 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